The present work is an attempt to study the various aspects of temple architecture in the Salem region. Salem region is situated in the northwestern part of Tamilnadu comprising the present-day districts of Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri, Namakkal and Salem. Of the four districts, Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri districts form the northern part, and Salem and Namakkal districts form the Southern part of the region. This region is situated between 10030' and 140 north latitudes and 77.28oand 78.50oeast longitude. In the present work, for easy understanding of the subject, the land described above is addressed by the name 'Salem region'. Salem region is a 'buffer' land between present-day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. Therefore, this region, from the beginning, experienced the political and cultural impacts of the three different states. Salem region is a land where people of three languages live. The geographical location of the Salem region made it a politically strategic point between the Tamil and Karnataka powers. Political vicissitudes often changed the fortunes of this land.
The northern part of this region is adjacent to both Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. To the west is the Coimbatore district. To the south, Trichy and the east, North and South Arcot districts are situated. The total area of this Salem region is about 18,262.6 sq. km i.e. 7051.2 sq miles.
The Salem region, in the present context, comprises the old Salem district, i.e., the region before its partition into Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri and Namakkal districts, which were previously taluk headquarters of the old Salem district. Dharmapuri was separated in the mid-1960s and Namakkal in the 90s. Krishnagiri became a district in 2002. For a thorough study of temples, these regions are included under one head, i.e., the Salem Region.
Salem Region is geographically divided into three parts. The first part is the Balaghat, which is a part of the Deccan tableland. It constitutes a large portion of Krishnagiri and about half of the western Hosur taluk. To its south and west are dense forests and the average elevation of this region is about 3000 feet above sea level. Baramahal, which is about 1300 feet above sea level, comprising roughly the taluks of Dharmapuri, Harur, the northeastern part of Krishnagiri and the eastern part of Hosur, form the second part. The third part is the Talaghat and it differs from the above two. It is a plain region and is about 1200 feet above sea level. Taluks of Attur, Rasipuram and Namakkal are in the east and Salem, Omalur and Tiruchengodu are in the west of this division.
Salem region, geographically, is also varied in its nature. Hilly regions rising to 3,000 ft and plain tableland rising to 1,300 ft and also plain regions of lesser altitude are found. The land of this region is fertile and the climate is very salubrious for human habitation. The Cauvery river is the only major river that flows through a part of this region. Apart from this, the region is full of rivulets, tanks and lakes. Therefore, this region was commercially very prosperous. The main connecting route between Karnataka and Tamilnadu passed through this region. Military invasions of the powers of these two states used to pass through this land.
In this context, it is necessary to explain Salem, as a "buffer zone". Buffer region is a geographical region, which lies between two Imperial seats of political powers. Consequently, the region experiences a shift of powers. Whenever one Imperial dynasty becomes more powerful than the other, this buffer zone experiences its influence and gets included in its boundary. This, many times, results in the change of cultural and social milieu of the society of the buffer region, which is best reflected in the temples of that region. Variants of the known art styles, hybridization of different architectural motifs and decorative members and sometimes even the emergence of new forms and motifs can be noticed in the monuments and relics of the buffer region.
The political supremacy of various rulers over this region influenced the sociocultural development of this region. Therefore, a tasteful blend of the two distinctly different traditions is discernible in the art forms of the Salem region. This factor makes the present study more interesting.
The Salem region, as stated above, was a buffer state during the different periods of its history. The political powers of Karnataka and Tamilnadu tried to establish their supremacy over this region. The Tamil political powers that ruled over this region were the Adhigamans, Pallavas, Banas, Cholas and Pandyas. Likewise, the Kannada powers that ruled over this region were the western Gangas, Nolambas, Hoysalas and Vijayanagara rulers. The impact of different cultures on this land resulted in the development of a cultural idiom that possessed the characteristic features of the Tamil and Kannada cultures. Though the general architectural pattern of entire south India was Dravidian in character, the influence of the local tradition, beliefs, customs and manners played an important role in the formation of local idioms of the Dravidian style. This is very clearly discernible in the art forms of this region.
Religious edifices built under the patronage of many of these ruling powers are found in this region. The earliest shrines of the region are the rock-cut shrines at Namakkal. This was excavated by an Adhigaman ruler, as evidenced by an inscription there. Though it was excavated by an Adhigaman ruler, the influence of the Pallava School of art is explicit in the execution of these rock-cut shrines. Even the sculptures found here exhibit the traits of the sculptural art of the Pallavas. Therefore the beginnings of the architectural and sculptural art of the region may be traced to the Pallava period.
Structural temple art begins from the days of the Nolamba rule and shows a continuous development under the patronage of the succeeding ruling dynasties. About a hundred temples, ascribed to the period between the 9th century and 16th century A.D., are noticed, spread all over the Salem region. All these temples are built in the Dravidian style. As this region was a buffer zone between the Tamil and Kannada powers, a hybridised form of art can be noticed here. These hybridised features are not generally noticed in their respective heartlands. Therefore, a study of the art forms of this buffer region is not only interesting but also highly informative from the point of view of hybridization and the development of new forms.
The period of the present study begins from the 7th century CE, i.e., from the time of the Pallavas to the 17th century CE, i.e., the end of the Vijayanagara period. The beginning of temple architecture can be traced to the middle of the 7th century in this region. However, uninterrupted progress in development is discernible from the 9th century onwards. During the Vijayanagara period, the temple architecture reached its zenith and the same declined in a short period, after the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565. By the middle of the 17th century, clear traces of deterioration and stagnation in temple art can be noticed all over the region. Therefore, this study is limited to the middle of the 17th century.
Now, coming to the study of the subject done already by scholars and historians may be listed as follows:
Extensive archaeological and epigraphical surveys have been conducted and recorded in this region, yet not much study on temple architecture and sculpture has been done exclusively. A few words like 'Namakkal' by Ramaswamy and the 'Namakkal caves' by Vidya Daheja are published. These are handbooks on the subjects. Salem Cyclopedia, an encyclopedia edited by B. Rajannan, is a working general in nature and the description of temples given in this work is more mythological and traditional. Hence, this study cannot be considered a scientific study of the subject.
'The Kongu country' is a work by Arokiaswami. This work is one of the first research works on this region. But, there are many loopholes in this work. The statistics, the chronology and the dates given are not accurate. The survey of temples given by this author is very brief. 'The history of Kongu' is another work by V. Ramamurthy. This again is a work mainly oriented towards political history. 'Kongu Nadu' is a very recent research work by V Manikkam. This work concentrates on the political and economic history of the Kongu region. All the above-cited works concentrate more on the political, economical and administrative history and other aspects, while the importance given to art and architecture in them is negligible.
Several scholars have worked on the Mallikarjuna and Kamakshiamman temples at Dharmapuri. 'Nolambas' a research work by Prof. M. S. Krishna Murthy gives an illustrated description of these temples for the first time. Likewise, works on Nolamba architecture and sculpture by Scholars like K. Krishna Murthy and Andrew L Cohen describe these temples. The EIT A volume also describes these temples but considers these temples as the temples consecrated by the Banas of Perumbanavadi.
'Hoysalas in Tamil country' is a work by K R Venkataraman, which concentrates on the political supremacy of the Hoysalas over the Tamil regions. In this work, the mention of certain aspects of Salem is noticed, but it is very brief. In this work, the chapter on art and architecture concentrates only on the Hoysaleshwara Temple built in Kannanur, but no detailed study of the temples with the influence of Hoysala art in the region is made.
Research articles of various researchers are published in different journals and periodicals, highlighting discoveries, such as inscriptions, sculptures, archaeological sites, etc., of the region.
All the works mentioned above are, no doubt, laudable in their own right. Yet, they do not give a clear, complete and comprehensive account of the development of the temple architecture of the Salem region. The studies mentioned above, particularly about the study of temples, are limited in their scope. They are descriptive studies of the monuments of the region or a particular place. In this situation, the present work forms a concerted study of the temple architecture of the Salem region based on the scientific study of the architectural members part by part of the temple, their textual affinity, their development, their variations and deviations from the textual prescription, hybridization, regional talents and also an overall analysis of the development of temple architecture of the region. Hence it is a work, first of its kind, dealing with all the aspects of the temple architecture of the region.
At the beginning of the research programme by the author, the intention was to study the origin and development of the temple architecture in the Salem region beginning from the 7th century A.D. to the beginning of the Vijayanagara rule. But after conducting a detailed survey of the region, it was found that the culmination of the development of temple architecture of the region is noticed only by the end of the Vijayanagara rule. Therefore, it was felt that the study would be incomplete if it ends at the beginning of the Vijayanagara rule. Also, the majority of the developed and finer aspects of the architecture of the region begin to appear only during the Vijayanagara period. The majority of the temples of the region are not just isolated structures belonging to pre- Vijayanagara period, they, during the Vijayanagara period, continued to be in use with additions made to them during the Vijayanagara period. In that way, they become a part and parcel of Vijayanagara architecture also. Considering these aspects, it was decided to include the Vijayanagara period also under the purview of this study, so that, a clear comprehensive development of all the aspects of temple architecture, from its beginning to the period of decline can be traced in one study.
The nature of art forms in this region is not only extensive but also varied. This is because of the influence of various schools of art on the art of this region. A study conforming to the art of the heartland, generally, limits itself to one school of art. Therefore, knowledge of the aspects of that particular school of art is enough to understand the art of that region. Whereas, for the present type of study, a knowledge of the elements of different schools of art is necessary for the analysis of the temple art of this region. The temples of different schools appear with certain of their salient features in this region. The temples of the region not only continue the features of the earlier forms of art but at the same time accept certain features of the newly arrived art forms. The art forms of such a transition period can be observed here and the development of those forms, in the region, is also discernible.
A present study is an approach to analyse and understand the various scriptural definitions as well as, the morphological studies of the different architectural forms of the region. To make this study systematic, various parts of the temples of the region are classified and studied in a detailed manner. This study includes the definition, purpose, function and importance of that particular part of the temple building. The vastu Texts on Hindu temple architecture are studied and the description given in them are taken into account. The descriptions of the vastu Texts are analysed and compared with the existing architectural forms and the existing forms are compared with the types of forms given in the Texts. In this effort, the etymology of the terms, used for such parts and types, are also taken into account for definition and proper identification. The meaning of the terms of the architectural forms and the types of motifs is also considered for their description. Sometimes, based on the appearance of the forms or the implied meaning of the terms used for them, they are identified.
This methodology is applied particularly in the identification of the different types of adhisthanas, pillars and prasad, for which different names are given in the Texts. The Texts, as such, do not give a clear picture of the nature of these architectural members, but they provide several types and sub-types of such members. Therefore, to identify the exact name of the type of such an existing member in the temple, the above-said methodology is used.
A thorough study of Vastu Texts and Agamas is made to understand the name, nature, function and significance of the different architectural members.
Vastu Texts available for the study of south Indian temple architecture are, mainly, the Mayamata, the Manasara, the Kasyapasilpa, the Silparatna, the Isanasivagurudevapaddati and the Tantrasamucchaya.
Agamas like Kamikagama, Ajitagama, Vimanarcanakalpa, Padmasamhita, Rauravagama, Karanagama, Suprabhedagama, etc., also deal with the aspects of temple architecture, to a certain extent.
Puranas like Agnipurana and Visnudharmottarapurana also furnish details regarding the temple architecture and sculpture. Samhitas like Brhatsamhita, Isvarasamhitha, Purusottarnasamhita, etc., contain a few references regarding temple architecture.
Apart from these, a vague idea of the terminology and application of certain architectural principles are to be seen in Kautilya's Arthasastra and the Amarakosa, In this work, Kirtanas of saints and great composers of music and verses are also used as a source for the description of temples and the temple culture. Some of the literary works by ancient poets are also used as source material for the description of certain architectural motifs.
In the present study, the Texts referred to are mainly, Mayamata, Manasara, Nasyapasilpa, Silparatna, Isanasivagurudevapaddati and Kamikagama, as the prescriptions found in these Texts can be easily applied to the temples of our region. Therefore, the term 'Texts' in the body of this work implies these Texts only. Of these Texts, Mayamata is very clear in its description and maintains consistency in its presentation. These Texts agree regarding the description and prescription, with a few exceptions. A feature invariably noticed in these Texts is the use of synonyms denoting the same architectural member mentioned in the other Text.
Though these Texts provide quite an amount of information regarding temple architecture, they are not free from inconsistencies. Certain descriptions and prescriptions in the Texts are quite confusing and not clear. It is also difficult to understand certain aspects of the Textual prescriptions. Different versions of the same Text make contradictory statements. Apart from these, the major difficulty while studying the Texts is the loss of certain parts of the Text itself. As these Texts were written in a perishable medium, i.e., palm leaves, due to the ravages of time and weather, some of the leaves would have gotten damaged, which resulted in the loss of certain parts. Likewise, in ancient times the mode of preservation of these Texts was to make an eye copy of the earlier version. In this process, the chances of misspelling and misinterpretation of the original version, omissions, additions and alterations may occur. These again lead to contradictions and confusion.
In the reading of the original portions of some of the Texts, it gives the impression that those portions are verbatim copies of the Text of an unknown source. Because, the same type of inconsistency, incongruity and vagueness appears uniformly in many of the Texts. Even some of the experts on Agamas and vastu of the present day have expressed their inability to understand or grasp the exact concepts explained in the Texts, in the discussions they had personally with the author. They have expressed the same opinion, as given earlier, regarding the reasons for the inconsistency and incongruity in the Texts.
Despite these difficulties faced while studying the Texts, considerable information regarding the essential building components is available. This information is judiciously analysed and studied to cull out the essence of such descriptions, omitting unnecessary details. That means minor aspects are ignored and major aspects are analysed and applied. Texts give enormous information regarding the measurements of the major and minor mouldings of adhisihanas, the application of which is difficult. Therefore, the measurement aspect is not considered very important in this study. Likewise, mention and description of umpteen numbers of minor mouldings and motifs made in the Texts are also given less importance in this study.
Taking into consideration the etymological sense of the names of architectural members, the morphology of such architectural forms is analysed. This approach has given good results, particularly, in the identification of the adhisihana types mentioned in the Texts. It is also to be noticed here that some Texts differ in naming the architectural members differently, though their etymology conveys the same meaning.
Other architectural terms are also explained through the etymological approach and their functions, characteristic feature, physical and aesthetic, and the hidden technological factors behind the construction and provision of certain architectural members, are also analysed and explained.
While explaining the origin and development of certain art concepts or idioms and other associated ideas, examples from other areas of south India are also taken into account. The idea behind this is to establish that the same concepts and ideas regarding the general nature of the building and sculptural art prevailed in the region of our study also.
The explanation regarding the constructional procedure to be followed in the beginning is that given in Kasyapasilpa, Though other texts also mention this aspect, these descriptions are unclear and ambiguous, whereas, the presentation of the same in Kasyapasilpa is easily understandable. The other architectural members that are visible, their technical aspects, their function, their necessity, their advantages and other aspects, are explained with the help of modern civil engineering technology.
While dealing with certain members of the temple and other decorative motifs found in the region, the features of those parts as expressed both in Tamil and Kannada idioms are explained, the reason being, the area of our study is a buffer zone between Tamil and Kannada kingdoms. Therefore, to explain the presence of such motifs in the region, one has to know the place of their origin first and understand the reasons behind the presence of such traits in the temples of our region.
Regarding the use of terminology in the present study, the Sanskrit nomenclature is used first. Its English equivalent is also given there. In the body of the Text, simultaneous use of both Sanskrit and English terms is made to familiarize both terminologies. Similarly synonymous terms are also used in the narration.
In the region of our study, the beginning of structural temple architecture can be noticed from the late 9th century CE onwards. The Nolambas laid the foundation for the temple-building activity of this region. From this time onwards, a continuous activity of temple construction is observed. An increase in the number of constructions, as well as the patronage for temple construction in the succeeding centuries has been noticed. Though the architectural style of the region can be brought under the Dravidian school of architecture, the influence of various sub-styles of the same architectural school, which have affiliation either to a particular dynasty or to a particular period, can be observed. The same statement holds good for sculptural art also. For example, the general outlay of the temple may be of Chola idiom, but, while studying the architectural members, their decoration and carving may reflect the traits of the Hoysala school of art. Such factors are also analysed in this work.
Though the Texts give a specific prescription for the carving of different architectural members and decorative motifs, artists of the region have executed them according to their imagination and skill. This aspect proves that at all times, the Texts were not followed strictly and even the artists enjoyed the freedom of expression. Such aspects have been noticed on various occasions while studying many architectural members and structural additions to the temples and such instances are highlighted in the present work.
Discussions and consultation with Sanskrit scholars and Agamic experts were held for the confirmation of the statements made and the conclusions drawn by the author about textual prescriptions and also their etymological meanings. Likewise, civil engineers were consulted for the understanding of certain aspects of the constructional methodology.
In the present study analytical observations regarding the aspects, which are directly concerned with the development of temple architecture of the Salem region have been brought out. Analysis of factors like the availability of materials, skilled labour, efficient architects, patronage and the adoption of changing technology have been made. The temples distributed throughout the region are not uniform in nature. Some of them are very simple in their execution and utilitarian. Likewise, some of the temples are highly ornate and grand. There are some more temples, which are a mixture of the two elements. These factors are the results of the change in the taste of contemporary society, the availability of men, materials and money, improvement in technology, acceptance of new ideas, and innovations and the change in the socio-religious attitude of contemporary society.
Ground plans and line drawings presented in this work are prepared by the author himself. These drawings and plans are not to scale.
Regarding the use of diacritical marks to transliterate the Sanskrit and Dravidian terms into Roman script diacritical marks given in the chart are used. While spelling the well-known names of persons, places and divinities, the Roman script is used without diacritical marks. For unfamiliar and lesser-known names of persons and divinities Roman script with diacritical marks is used. For all non-English words and expressions Italics with diacritical marks are used. Generally, except at the beginning of the sentence, lowercase is used for the first letter of the word in Italics, the reason being, that there is no use of lower and upper case in the writing of Sanskrit and Dravidian scripts.
Italics are used for all non-English names, which are also not familiar in the general context. For example, for the names of Iilamurtis and the avataramurtis, Roman script with diacritical is used.
In the body of the thesis, while naming the nature of different architectural and sculptural traits, expressions like Nolamba school, Chola school, Hoysala school, etc., are used liberally. The 'school' in this context means the characteristic features and traits associated with the art forms produced by the artisans of that society, of that particular region, and under the rule of that dynasty.
Likewise, the expression 'idiom' is also used liberally in the Text. 'Idiom' in this context means the specific character or form of expression unique to that particular school or region, where that art form was widely prevalent.
After/explaining the nature of the study and presentation of the subject, it is necessary here to explain some of the aspects connected with the different schools of art, the knowledge of which is essential to understand the nature of the art forms of the region of our study. These are explained chronologically than geographically so that the study gives a clear picture of the development of the art forms and also the architectural forms found in the temples.
